Scholarly Articles

References

Taylor, J. (1990). The causes and prevention of drug abuse in professional sports in America. Psychotherapy and Private Practice, 8, 23-30.

Taylor, J. (1991). Career direction, development, and opportunities in applied sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 266-280.

Taylor, J. (1992). Coaches are people too: An applied model of stress management for sport coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 4, 27-50.

Simons, R., & Taylor, J. (1992). A psychosocial model of fan violence. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 23, 207-226.

Taylor, J., & Schneider, B.A. (1992). The Sport-Clinical Intake Protocol: A comprehensive interviewing instrument for sport. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 23, 318-325.

Taylor, J., Horevitz, R., & Balague, G. (1993). The use of hypnosis in applied sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 58-78.

Chiert, T., Gold, S.N., & Taylor, J. (1994). Substance abuse training in APA-accredited doctoral programs in clinical psychology: A survey. Psychological Bulletin, 25, 80-84.

Taylor, J., & Demick, A. (1994). A multidimensional model of momentum in sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 51-70.

Taylor, J., & Ogilvie, B.C. (1994). A conceptual model of adaptation to retirement among athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 1-20.

Taylor, J., & Cuave, K. (1994). The sophomore slump among professional baseball players: Real or imagined? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 25, 230-238.

Taylor, J. (1994). Examining the boundaries of sport science and psychology trained practitioners in applied sport psychology: Title usage and area of competence. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 185-195.

Taylor, J. (1995). A conceptual model of the integration of athletic needs and sport demands in the development of competitive mental preparation strategies. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 339-357.

Andersen, M.B., Williams, J.M., Aldridge, T., & Taylor, J. (1997). Tracking the Training and Careers of Graduates of Advanced Degree Programs in Sport Psychology, 19891994. The Sport Psychologist, 11, 326-344.

Taylor, J., & Taylor, S. (1998). Pain education and management in the rehabilitation from sports injury. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 68-88.

Available upon request (not online)

Taylor, J. (1981). The effects of mental fitness on athletic performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 12, 87-95.

Riess, M. & Taylor, J. (1984). Ego-involvement and attributions for success and failure in a field setting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 536-543.

Taylor, J. (1987). Predicting athletic performance with self-confidence and somatic and cognitive anxiety as a function of motor and physiological requirements in six sports. Journal of Personality, 3, 1-15.

Taylor, J. (1987). A review of validity issues in sport psychological research: Types, problems, solutions. Journal of Sport Behavior, 10, 3-13.

Taylor, J. & Boggiano, A.K. (1987). The effects of task-specific self-schemata on attributions for success and failure. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 375-388.

Taylor, J. (1988). Slumpbusting: A systematic analysis of slumps in sports. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 39-48.

Taylor, J. (1989). The effects of performance and competitive self-efficacy and differential outcome feedback on subsequent self-efficacy and performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13, 67-79.

Taylor, J. & Riess, M. (1989). A field experiment of "self-serving" attributions to valenced causal factors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 337-348.

THE CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DRUG ABUSE

IN PROFESSIONAL SPORTS IN AMERICA

Jim Taylor

Abstract

This paper examines some of the major issues associated with drug use and abuse in professional sports. In particular, the reasons why athletes may take drugs and means of primary prevention is addressed. More specifically, it is believed that athletes take drugs because they have not developed effective intra- and interpersonal skills to cope constructively with the pressures exerted by management, media, and fans. A broad-based program of primary prevention is offered that attempts to circumvent the most significant causes of drug abuse. The first phase of the program involves drug education that provide honest, straightforward information about the benefits and detriments of various drugs. Second, because drug use is not believed to be controlled by purely rational decision-making, "emotional education" modeled after the "Scared Straight" programs with juvenile delinquents would be used to reach young athletes at the "gut" level. Third, effective coping and general life skills would be taught as a means of providing the athletes with ways of constructively handling the pressure. Finally, a supportive environment would be developed to assist the athletes in coping with their lifestyle and the associated difficulties.

The Causes and Prevention of Drug Abuse

in Professional Sports in America

Public opinion polls indicate that drug abuse is the most significant concern among the American people today. As sports are a microcosm of life, drug abuse may now be the greatest problem faced by the athletic community.

It has been suggested that the incidence of drug abuse is no greater in sports than in the general population. Further, we are only more acutely aware of it because of the extreme visibility of athletes. However, this contention is questionable. The rash of suspensions due to drug testing violations in the National Football League recently suggests that its occurrence may be significant and increasing (Hoffman & Jennings, 1987; "Suspended Players", 1988). Regardless, the widespread use of drugs in professional sports deserves special attention by everyone within and outside of the sports world because of the very exposure that brings it to our attention and the profound influence that professional athletes have on young people.

Current Status

Considerable efforts have been made by the professional leagues and their teams to address these problems. In particular, there has been an attempt to view drug abuse as a problem that requires medical and psychological treatment in addition to punitive action. This perspective has lead to drug rehabilitation programs and greater support for the abusing athletes. Though these efforts have been commendable, they also appear to be short-sighted and largely ineffective. Of particular concern is the use of short-term rehabilitation programs which provide a 30-day detoxification plan for athletes and then put them immediately back into the environment that triggered the abuse initially. Research on the efficacy of these programs in the general population indicates a recidivism rate of up to 70% (Craig, 1985; Jaffe, 1984; Sackstein, 1983). The preponderance of "two-time losers" in professional sports indicates that they may not be effective in the sports domain either. Unfortunately, the reasons for this type of treatment program are financial rather than humanitarian. Specifically, insurance companies typically cover only a 28-day program for drug treatment. In addition, sports teams are highly motivated to return their abusing players to competition for the sake of winning and justifying the salaries that they are paying these players.

Despite these efforts, there has been little discussion of several fundamental questions related to drug abuse in professional sports. First, what are the causes of the drug problem in professional sports? Second, why do athletes in some sports take drugs while those in other sports do not? Third, how can drug abuse be prevented?

Causes of Drug Abuse

There seem to be two general reasons why athletes take drugs. First, they are used to enhance performance (Fuller & LaFountain, 1987). Drugs such as anabolic steroids, amphetamines, cocaine, and other stimulants fall into this category (Dyment, 1987). For this class of abusers, there is a certain, though twisted, logic to their use. In addition, there is considerable pressure from media, fans, and management that motivates the athletes to use these drugs. The fact is, these substances do enhance performance in the short term. As such, athletes are simply taking every advantage to maximize their performances. Unfortunately, athletes tend to be near-sighted and, as a result, do not consider the long-term physical, psychological, and social harm they are incurring.

The second reason that has been suggested why athletes take drugs is for reasons of escape. In other words, they are unable to constructively cope with the pressures of professional sports and, as a result, turn to illicit substances as a means of offering relief. Drugs commonly used for this purpose are alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine. This purpose will be the focus of the present article.

It is instructive to note that drug abuse is not widespread in all sports. For example, there is little evidence of drug use in professional tennis and golf, although there is some research to suggest that there is at the collegiate level (Cook & Tricker, 1987). In contrast, substance abuse in football, basketball, and baseball is well-documented ("Suspended Players, 1988, Johnson, 1988). Moreover, there are some clear differences between the two classes of sports that may explain the differential use of drugs. Perhaps the most significant difference is the socioeconomic status of the athletes who participate. Traditionally, tennis players and golfers come from predominantly affluent backgrounds. In contrast, a significant number of the athletes who play football, basketball, and baseball are from lower SES backgrounds. These divergent upbringings result in differential experiences with respect to money, the development of social and communication skills, and intellectual and emotional maturity. This observation is critical because it is this difference in upbringing that may be the primary cause of drug abuse in the league sports.

A second distinction is between individual and team sports. Participants in individual sports are, by the nature of the sport, required to develop independence, assertiveness, and maturity because they do not have anyone upon whom to rely. In addition, the structure of the professional tours is such that their rewards are contingency-based, i.e., they are rewarded for their performances. In contrast, team sports have an elaborate structure that assumes many of the responsibilities of these athletes. Moreover, it is these responsibilities that result in the development of maturity and effective coping skills. Additionally, team athletes are typically paid prior to their performances, i.e., before the competitive season.

This difference between the two classes of sports may contribute to more problems among athletes in the team sports. Moreover, it is commonly believed in the psychology community that people who develop maladaptive patterns of behavior such as drug use, do so because they have not learned how to cope with problems in a healthy manner. From this perspective, these athletes take drugs because they are ill-equipped emotionally and experientially to effectively deal with the pressures under which they are placed.

An additional question that must be asked is: Who is responsible for the current drug situation? Certainly, that ethereal entity known as society has to bear much of the blame. Society creates certain misperceptions about athletes like Johnny O. (see side box). First, athletes are led to believe they are superhuman and invulnerable. They believe that they are not susceptible to the ills of mortal men. A powerful example of this attitude can be seen with professional football player, Lawrence Taylor, who believed that he could cure himself of a cocaine problem by playing golf every day (Taylor & Falkner, 1987). This belief on the part of athletes results in maladaptive behaviors such as taking drugs, which are clearly harmful, and subsequent denial of the problem. They cannot accept the fact that they are drug abusers because it is inconsistent with their belief that they are invincible, which has been reinforced in them for years (McGuire, 1987). This misguided attitude will certainly prevail until the athletes are forced, through drug testing or severe health difficulties, to face and accept their problems.

On a more interpersonal level, parents, coaches, and fans make a very important and, often inappropriate, assumption. Namely, people assume that because athletes are physically mature, they are also psychologically and emotionally mature. It is this assumption that may be another fundamental cause of the substance abuse problem in professional sports.

Prevention

Addressing the issue of preventing substance abuse is a difficult one because of the multi-dimensional nature of the problem. Perhaps of foremost importance is the necessity to be realistic. It is unlikely that it can be made less competitive or the pressures associated with participation in professional sports can be removed through direct intervention.

We can, however, ameliorate the problem at a more molecular level, i.e., the individual athletes (Swisher & Hu, 1983). Initially, this process involves education in several domains. First, it is necessary to provide accurate information about the effects of drugs. How do they affect athletes physically and psychologically? What are the long- and short-term effects of the drugs?

An emphasis must be placed on being honest about drugs with the athletes. For example, despite denial by many people in the medical community, steroids do appear to provide significant faster and greater muscle development than training alone (Haupt & Rovere, 1984). By not misleading athletes, they may become more trustful of reliable information and are less likely to pursue the use of illicit drugs.

A significant first step and a preliminary model for future drug education in sport has recently been introduced by the National Collegiate Athletic Association under the direction of Drs. David Cook and Ray Tricker of the University of Kansas. They have produced a series of videos that provide honest and straightforward information to athletes about the various classes of drugs. These videos act as a springboard for discussions among athletes, coaches, and trained professionals about the significant issues involving athletes and drugs.

This type of drug education is of critical importance. It must be pointed out, however, that such an educational approach is of an intellectual, rational nature. Yet, athletes do not respond to reason alone. It is likely that a significant number of athletes who take drugs have a reasonable understanding of their dangers, but, nevertheless, take drugs in spite of the risks. It appears that athletes take drugs for a variety of emotional reasons such as a lack of self-confidence or motivation, fear of failing, or the absence of appropriate constructive coping skills.

At this level, education that models itself after the "Scared Straight" programs used with juvenile delinquents may be employed. This type of education involves having professional athletes who are former drug abusers describe their experiences to younger athletes. This "emotional education" reaches athletes at a "gut" level. This two-pronged (rational and emotional) approach should have a more comprehensive and influential effect on athletes.

The next step in the drug education program involves teaching constructive coping and general life skills to athletes (Meichenbaum, 1977 Kirschenbaum, 1984). As suggested above, a primary cause of substance abuse may be the absence of alternative means of handling stressful situations. As a result of developing effective coping skills, athletes will not need drugs to deal with their problems. Skills that are important to professional athletes include competence in communication, relaxation and confidence-building techniques, motivation strategies, and time and money management training. It is suggested that this type of training could be a valuable part of preparation for professional sports.

Finally, an important aspect of addressing the drug abuse problem is to furnish a supportive environment in which athletes can seek out assistance as an alternative to turning to drugs. This support can be provided by easy accessibility to and social acceptance of a psychologist in the sport setting. Moreover, psychologists can play a significant role in several areas of drug use control including the identification and early intervention of athletes who are most susceptible to drug involvement and regular involvement with the athletes on individual and team levels.

This preventive model may be beneficial to the individual athletes, the sports organizations, and society as a whole. At an individual level, the athletes would demonstrate a higher level of mental health, be better adjusted and more mature, and, as a result, be able to performance better. At an organizational level, these better functioning and higher performing athletes would generate higher quality team performances and greater financial gains for their teams. Lastly, at the societal level, the change among the professional athletes should proliferate down through the sports community to young athletes through sound role modeling and continuing education.

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CAREER DIRECTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND OPPORTUNITIES

IN APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Jim Taylor

Abstract

Perhaps the most important questions that aspiring applied sport psychologists must ask are: "How do I obtain the necessary education and experience that will enable to me to develop a successful career in applied sport psychology?" and "Given the appropriate preparation, what can I do to maximize my opportunities in applied sport psychology?". The present article addresses some of the critical issues that are involved in the development of a successful career in applied sport psychology by offering a three-phase model of career direction, development, and opportunities. In particular, educational direction and training, supplemental experience, and sport, exercise, or health involvement are considered. Specific concerns related to these areas are discussed relative to the enhancement of career development and opportunities.

Career Direction, Development, and Opportunities

in Applied Sport Psychology

During the past decade, there has been considerable discussion of and debate over the appropriate preparation for a career in sport psychology (Dishman, 1983; Nideffer, Feltz, & Salmela, 1982; USOC, 1983). This on-going dialogue has focused on what comprises the most effective education and experience for competence in the field.

A first step in developing systematic guidelines for the training of sport psychologist occurred in 1983 when a committee of experts appointed by the United States Olympic Committee delineated three types of sport psychologists: clinical, educational, and research (USOC, 1983). These categories were characterized in terms of differing education and training requirements (for a detailed description, see USOC, 1983).

In addition, the particular activities appropriate to the three types of sport psychologists were also clarified. Specifically, according to the report, the activities of clinical sport psychologists would include "helping athletes who experience severe emotional problems...examples of such problems include depression, anorexia, and panic...services also include crisis intervention" (p. 5). Educational sport psychologists could engage in "helping athletes to develop the psychological skills necessary for optimal participation...examples include relaxation, concentration, and imagery skills" (p. 5). Research sport psychologists' involvement was not clearly defined, "research was designated as a separate component, although it is understood that research is inherent in clinical and educational activities" (p. 5).

Though the criteria for inclusion into these categories were subsequently criticized (Heyman, 1984), the report did provide the field with a point of reference to begin the development of guidelines for the determination of competence. Recently, this issue has turned more directly toward the preparation of sport psychologists interested in working specifically in applied settings.

In response to strong interest in the more applied facets of sport psychology, the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) was established in 1986 to address the unique concerns of applied sport psychologists. This organization, currently comprised of over 500 professional and student members working in both academia and private settings, represents practitioners involved in performance, exercise, health, and social aspects of applied sport psychology. AAASP characterizes applied sport psychology as "an educational enterprise involving the communication of principles of sport psychology to participants in sports training and competition, exercise, and physical activity" (AAASP, 1989, p. 1). The specific services provided by applied sport psychologists include:

1. Providing information relevant to the role of psychological factors in exercise, physical activity, and sport to individuals, groups, and organizations.

2. Teaching participants specific cognitive, behavioral, psycho-social, and affective skills for application in exercise, physical activity, and sport contexts. Such instruction or intervention could focus, for example, on relaxation, concentration, imagery, or moral reasoning.

3. Within exercise, physical activity, and sport settings, helping participants understand, measure, and improve relevant psychological factors, such as arousal, anxiety, audience effects, and coping skills.

4. Educating organizations and groups in areas such as improvement of adherence to exercise regimens, communication, team cohesion, and program development and evaluation (AAASP, 1989).

Recently, AAASP implemented a certification program in order to provide a foundation for regulation of applied sport psychologists (AAASP, 1989). This certification mandates that applicants produce evidence of knowledge, training, and experience in a multidisciplinary realm. Moreover, the implications of the certification program on graduate training may be potentially significant. Specifically, it is likely that, as the certification program gains recognition and stature, graduate programs will feel the necessity to offer curricula and training that satisfies the certification criteria. As a consequence, it may be that the establishment of the certification program will result in an increase in quality and uniformity in graduate training programs in applied sport psychology throughout North America.

Though this issue will continue to be discussed by the leaders in the field as applied sport psychology evolves, it is also of great importance to individuals interested in pursuing a career in applied sport psychology and those professionals currently involved in the development of academic training programs. Perhaps the most pressing question asked by aspiring sport psychologists is, "How do I obtain the necessary education and experience that will enable to me to develop a successful career in applied sport psychology?" Another pertinent question is, "Given the appropriate preparation, what can I do to maximize my opportunities in applied sport psychology?". For professionals, important questions are, "What can I do to ensure that my students will have the breadth and depth of training that will enable them to succeed in the field?" and "What is the best means of providing them with an organized view of what they need to accomplish?". With the state of the field at present, there are no immediate or easy answers to these queries. At this point, there are no clearly-defined guidelines for education and training in applied sport psychology. As a result, for students, there is considerable uncertainty about the best course to take in pursuit of a career in applied sport psychology.

This paper addresses the issue of career direction, development, and opportunities by presenting a three-phase model of formal education, supplemental experience, and sports involvement. This model offers practical issues in each topic that aspiring sport psychologists must consider, evaluate, and accomplish in the development of a career in applied sport psychology. These issues will be discussed relative to the particular concerns in each area and how they will lead to sound education and experience. The purpose of this model is twofold. One goal is to present individuals interested in the field with a comprehensive and systematic understanding of the important issues associated with developing a career in applied sport psychology, thus assisting them in making appropriate choices based on their needs and interests. The second purpose is to furnish professionals involved in the graduate training process with information that, though not necessarily new to them, will act as a reminder of the significant concerns that exist in the training process. In addition, the current model may provide structure to the previously known information, thereby resulting in a more organized manner in which to convey this knowledge to their students.

Formal Education

Educational Level. Preparation for a career in applied sport psychology would be best served by beginning at the undergraduate level. Though not absolutely necessary, this early exposure would enable the student interested in applied sport psychology to begin to develop a knowledge base in the field. Most major universities offer a variety of sport psychology courses to undergraduates that would assist them in further focusing their areas of interest. In addition, research and applied opportunities might be available which would enhance their understanding of the subject and facilitate their acceptance into graduate programs.

This undergraduate involvement provides students with their first contact with formal training in sport psychology. However, to date, there are no formalized sport psychology undergraduate degrees available in the United States. Rather, students interested in the field will major in either psychology, physical education, or a related field such as sport science or kinesiology. Therefore, specialized training in sport psychology is necessary at the graduate level.

Moreover, it appears that continued training at the graduate level would be most effective when it leads to a doctoral degree. Specifically, a review of membership in AAASP indicates that the vast majority of professional members possess doctoral degrees (89%) and those holding master's degrees are most often students pursuing the higher degree (72%; Robin Vealey, AAASP Membership Director, personal communication, May 25, 1990). Furthermore, the USOC's Sport Psychology Registry requires a doctorate for membership (USOC, 1983) and AAASP mandates a doctorate for certification (AAASP, 1989). Thus, the evidence suggests that a doctoral degree is, for all intents and purposes, an important component for a career in applied sport psychology.

Educational Direction. Once individuals have decided that they wish to pursue a career in applied sport psychology, it is necessary to choose an area of specialization based on their interests in the field, i.e., what they want to do as professionals. This decision is critical because it will determine the first major concern of a prospective sport psychologist, i.e., whether to pursue an education in psychology or physical education (USOC, 1983). A perusal of the 1990 membership data for AAASP indicates that the distribution of degrees is fairly even. Specifically, 46% of the membership possess degrees from the field of psychology and 41% hold degrees from physical education or related fields (AAASP, 1990a).

At this point, it will be worthwhile discussing these two educational directions in greater detail. Over the past decade, there has been considerable development in the field of physical education. This growth has resulted in a specialization of study within the traditional programs. In particular, other domains to emerge include more specialized training in exercise, health, and sport, and a greater focusing on specific disciplines such as biomechanics, exercise physiology, and sport psychology. Due to this expansion and specialization, many physical education programs have been renamed to better identify their areas of interest such as kinesiology, exercise science, sport science, and recreational studies. As a result, for the sake of parsimony, this paper will use the term, sport science, to indicate any of the above programs that have within them specializations that are substantially sport psychology in nature.

In considering psychology programs, it should be noted that there are many subdisciplines within psychology that are relevant to applied sport psychology including clinical, counseling, personality, social, cognitive, health, and developmental. Furthermore, individuals trained in these areas would be able to provide services in some area of applied sport psychology. However, a significant issue that has emerged with the growth in the provision of sport psychological services has been the range of services that can be ethically and legally offered by those individuals who are trained in clinical or counseling psychology and those trained in a sport science setting and nonservice-oriented psychology programs. As a result, much of the dichotomization in this present paper will be addressed within this framework. In particular, emphasis will be placed on academic training and experiences that allow persons to engage in various types of interventions. Consequently, the term, clinical psychology, will be used to indicate all areas of psychology that provide training in diagnostic assessment and intervention including clinical, counseling, and other related domains.

Addressing this issue more specifically, if the intent is to provide educational interventions in a sport, exercise, or health setting, then a sport science degree may be most appropriate. Once the decision to pursue a doctoral degree in sport science is made, it is then important to investigate the particular curricula of graduate programs. It must be stressed that sport science programs have differing emphases, e.g., applied issues in exercise, health, or sport, research, and/or teaching. As a consequence, it is important for graduate applicants to be sure that the program focus and the resulting educational and training opportunities are consistent with their professional goals.

In contrast, if the interest is in providing clinical intervention, i.e., psychotherapeutic strategies, then a clinical psychology degree is needed. It should be noted that, to date, there are few APA-approved clinical or counseling psychology programs in the U.S. that offer specialized sport psychology training. Only 11 out of 95 programs listed in the Directory of Graduate Program in Applied Sport Psychology published by AAASP fit into this category (Sachs & Burke, 1989). Consequently, it may be difficult, though not impossible, to obtain sound sport psychology training in a clinical psychology program without such a formal course of study. Most importantly, students who enter clinical psychology programs without a clearly-defined sport psychology specialization will be required to proactively develop their own program. This self-developed specialization may be achieved at several levels. First, in formal coursework, papers and presentations may be drawn from the sport psychological literature. Second, research requirements may be fulfilled through the investigation of sport psychological issues. Finally, students may ask for special supervision or obtain placement in a student counseling center that could serve the university athletes. Due to the dearth of sport psychology specializations in clinical psychology programs, this approach is the one typically taken. However, students who consider this path should be cautioned that this approach necessitates a greater degree of self-motivation, creativity, and initiative.

The decision of which educational path to take has later implications with respect to professional and ethical issues. In particular, as Dishman (1983) states, "sport psychologists should do what they are trained to do and only promise to deliver that of which they are capable" (p. 126). An example of this issue is that there is considerable debate concerning the limits of intervention in which sport science-trained sport psychologists may engage and whether it is appropriate for them to do individual work with athletes.

Similarly, there is concern about the ethicality of clinical psychologists with little or no sport science training working with athletes. It has been argued that athletes represent a special population and, as a result, require specialized training to treat them. Consequently, clinicians without specialized training in sports would be operating outside of their area of competence and, thus, would be acting unethically.

Moreover, it might be maintained that neither type of program will readily help students to understand some of the unique issues that athletes face such as the pressures that influence some to abuse drugs, the difficulties of career termination, and the trauma of sudden injury. As a result, regardless of the focus of the program, this knowledge can best be gained through specialized coursework and applied sport psychology experience.

Furthermore, there are some important practical concerns for prospective students with respect to the two educational paths. For example, individuals must determine the importance of issues including admission standards of the respective doctoral programs, length of the training programs, the proportion of psychology vs. sport science courses, and the importance of state licensure. These practical considerations must also be taken into account as part of the decision-making process.

Finally, there are different opportunities available to each specialization of study and this issue should also be included in the judgment process. In particular, as can be seen in Table 3, there is considerable overlap in opportunities including mental training, corporate health, and sports medicine. However, there is also divergence in opportunities. Specifically, clinical psychologists may engage in psychotherapy, psychodiagnostics, and are better suited for individual intervention. In contrast, sport science-trained sport psychologists may coach, work in youth sports programs, and are more suited for educational services to groups.

In addition, an other important consideration is that, since the majority of applied sport psychologists reside in academic settings, a significant advantage of the sport science-trained sport psychologist is the greater opportunity of obtaining a faculty position in a university setting. In fact, a review of the 1990 AAASP membership directory indicates that, of the 322 professional members, 205 hold academic positions. Moreover, of those positions, 110 reside in sport science programs, 39 in psychology departments, and 56 were unspecified. In addition, 91 members indicated that they were in some kind of private practice or other non-academic setting (AAASP, 1990b). However, it should be pointed out that it is unclear whether these individuals simply have an interest in sport psychology or the degree to which their private practice clientele is sport psychology related. Based on these statistics, the potential career opportunities may be viewed from a more realistic perspective. Specifically, consulting work appears to rarely be self-supporting, work with rehabilitation, special populations, or sports medicine typically require additional specialized training, and researcher and professor are usually joint careers.

A final point that should be considered is that only those individuals trained in psychology programs and/or whose primary job descriptions in a university or government setting is as a psychologist are legally allowed to use the term `psychology' in their job title (AAASP, 1989). It should be pointed out that this, at present, is rarely enforced. However, it is likely that, as sport psychology grows as a field, greater enforcement in the future can be anticipated. Moreover, only psychologists are eligible for state licensure. These realities have several practical implications. First, individuals must decide what they wish their professional title to be. It can be expected that in the future, sport science-trained sport psychologists may be required to come up with another name for what they do. AAAASP has already prepared for this eventuality by using the generic term, "certified consultant, AAASP" (AAASP, 1989). Second, from a financial perspective, an advantage of being a licensed psychologist is the availability of third-party reimbursement from insurance companies. This issue has significant implications with respect to the potential for remuneration for services rendered.

One practice that appears to be emerging among today's graduate students is to receive a master's degree in one relevant discipline and then obtain a doctoral degree in another specialty. In particular, some students acquire a master's degree in some area of psychology, then undertake their doctoral work in sport science. Similarly, others receive a master's degree in sport science, then pursue doctoral training in psychology. Typically, the doctoral study is the area of primary interest to the student. This approach appears to be sound because it provides extensive training in both meaningful areas within applied sport psychology, i.e., sport science and psychology.

In sum, it is of the utmost importance for people to have a clear understanding of their personal interests and professional goals, and the practical issues of graduate education, so that their training will be congruent with all of these concerns.

Educational Curriculum. Over the past decade, some leading sport psychologists have expressed their views on the issue of career preparation (Brown, 1982; Dishman, 1983; Mahoney, 1987; Nideffer, Feltz, & Salmela, 1982; Pargman, 1988; Singer, 1987; Smith, 1988; Williams, 1988). Coming from both sport science and psychology backgrounds, these professionals have offered differing perspectives on what is appropriate training in applied sport psychology. However, the overriding theme that has emerged, regardless of the educational direction of the commentator, is that effective training must emphasize an interdisciplinary approach that includes courswork and experience in "psychology, sport science, health, sociology..." (Mahoney, 1987, p. 6), and other relevant fields. As a consequence, regardless of the path taken, it is important that the curriculum provides both a specialized and a broad-based foundation of knowledge.

Traditionally, there has been considerable criticism of both tracks with respect to this issue. In particular, it has been argued that psychology programs have had little or no coursework in the sport sciences, resulting in psychologists having an inadequate understanding of the particular needs of athletes. Similarly, it has been contended that sport science programs have had limited coursework in psychology, thus producing professionals with insufficient appreciation for more holistic psychological concerns of athletes.

As a result, it is valuable for the doctoral program to provide a balanced curriculum offering coursework in the area of specialization, i.e., psychology or sport science, and in other relevant areas. In particular, formal coursework should include specific information and training in the areas in which the students wish to work. For example, a psychology student will receive training in a variety of areas such as personality and psychotherapy and coursework in specialty areas such as the treatment of substance abuse. Moreover, it would also be useful to study these topics relative to the particular issues related to athletes.

Furthermore, the curriculum should offer more diverse coursework in subjects that could assist them in fulfilling their primary function. For instance, it would be valuable for psychology students to take courses in exercise physiology and motor learning, which is a common part of the sport science students' curriculum. This knowledge would enable psychologists to better understand the particular needs of athletes and demands of the sport, thereby allowing them to design and implement more effective interventions. Similarly, sport science students should take relevant psychology courses such as personality, counseling, social psychology, group dynamics, human development, and psychometrics in order to provide them with a more global understanding of how athletes function as people. In addition, this coursework would enhance their work in their particular area of interest and assist them in recognizing when clients' difficulties are more serious and should be referred to someone with the appropriate training. In addition to the clear benefits of a solid educational foundation, this diverse background is important for certification by the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP, 1989) and might also make them more marketable. In particular, the certification process requires that psychology-trained professionals have coursework in the sport sciences and sport science-trained professionals must have coursework in psychology.

Research. Participation in research is another important aspect of the educational process. Conducting research provides an excellent means of developing an in-depth knowledge of a particular area of interest. In addition, it enables students to develop their critical and conceptual thinking which can aid them in their applied work. Specifically, it allows professionals to critically evaluate their own intervention strategies and assists them in weighing the value of newly-developed interventions that are proposed within and outside the field.

Conducting research also has broader implications for the field of applied sport psychology. In particular, considerable damage has been done to the field by practitioners who use untested and unproven techniques. This approach hurts the profession at several levels. First, it allows individuals with little knowledge to present themselves as sport psychologists. Second, using questionable methods increases the likelihood of limited benefits, thereby alienating those persons, such as coaches and athletes, who have a genuine interest in sport psychology. Finally, related to this issue, these individuals may lose faith in the contributions that sport psychology can make and conclude that it has little value.

Sound applied research can circumvent this scenario by producing evidence for effective strategies that the trained professional may utilize. As with any field, providing a good product that is beneficial will result in satisfied recipients who will want to use these services in the future. This outcome enhances the credibility of both the professional and the profession. As a consequence, engaging in applied research will advance not only the professional development of the individual, but also the field in general.

Typically, students will begin their research work under a mentor. Studying under a mentor is a significant learning experience in which the student is provided with guidance and a role model in the effective conceptualization and implementation of research. This process includes both the creative development of the research questions and the execution of the research involving design, methodology, and statistical analysis. In addition, it is also important that, during the latter part of their formal education, students begin to conceptualize and implement their own research interests, thereby further developing their conceptual and analytical skills.

It is also advised that, in addition to empirical study, aspiring professionals seek to contribute to the theoretical literature. It has been suggested that one of the most significant needs in sport psychology is more theoretical development (Landers, 1983). This deficit provides many avenues for individuals to study and allows them to make meaningful and original contributions to the field. This latter point can be especially valuable for career opportunities because it can provide the occasion for young professionals to investigate a previously-untapped area, thereby becoming identified with that area, e.g., concentration and Nideffer (1976) and competitive anxiety and Martens (1977).

Writing and Speaking. On a general level, one of the most significant way to establish professional identity is through writing and speaking. In addition, it is the most effective means of reaching a large and diverse audience.

This practice may be aimed at both professional, i.e., refereed journals and professional organizations, and popular audiences, i.e., magazines and newspapers and teams, clubs, and other sport, exercise, or health organizations. There are several benefits to this approach. At the professional level, it enables young professionals to reify their skills and build confidence in their knowledge and abilities. Furthermore, writing and speaking can contribute to the development of professional recognition. In addition, at the popular level, it allows for the establishment of a reputation within the sport, exercise, or health communities.

Though acceptance in refereed publications is an arduous process, it is an important part of professional development. As a result, it should be pursued with vigor and patience. Additionally, there are more numerous and less rigorous opportunities in the popular literature. Though it is difficult to gain access into major popular magazines, there are many periodicals that cater to specialized audiences, e.g., Coaching Women's Basketball and Coaching Volleyball, which welcome interesting and informative articles. It is these publications that aspiring professionals may use to enhance their writing skills and gain exposure.

This latter point, sound writing skills, is a prerequisite for publication. Quite simply, ideas are only as good as an individual's ability to communicate them. As a result, the development of these abilities is crucial to the aspiring professional. In addition, once the fundamental skills have been acquired, the next step is to cultivate a writing style that is appropriate for the particular audience. For example, a professional audience would require more formal terminology and structure, detail, and informational rigor. In contrast, a popular audience would want writing that is simple, succinct, practical, and entertaining or, as an editor of a major sports publication once suggested, articles should be "brief, bright, and brilliant" (A. McNab, personal communication, May 18, 1987).

As in writing, professional and popular audiences for public speaking have different needs and interests. Pertinent distinguishing factors include theoretical vs. practical information, terminology, attire, and interactive style. However, both audiences will want a speaker who is confident, knowledgeable, understandable, and entertaining. It is advised that aspiring professionals accept every opportunity to speak to different groups.

As with most types of skills, speaking is best learned through repetition with regular constructive feedback. This process may be facilitated with the use of audio or video recording of presentations or obtaining feedback from the audience. In addition, offering free talks provides individuals with the opportunity to gain practice and hone their oratory skills without the concern for performing up to the expectations of fees. In addition, it can assist them in building their vitae.

Applied Skills. During the course of the formal educational program, it is essential that students receive the opportunity to develop their applied skills. These skills are developed through coursework and experience in, for example, assessment of sport-related difficulties and the range of cognitive-behavioral strategies involved in mental training such as goal-setting, relaxation training, attentional training, and mental imagery. For the clinical psychology student, clinical practica in a variety of populations are an integral part of the training program. However, it is also important for these students to gain experience working directly with athletes in order to learn how to apply their general clinical skills in the sports setting. More importantly, since sport science students do not have the opportunity to develop general intervention skills similar to the clinical psychology students, it is critical that they receive extensive sport-specific supervision.

As a result, students pursuing graduate training in applied sport psychology, whether in sport science or psychology, should make every effort to receive formal coursework and practica in applied sport psychology. As mentioned above, the technique-oriented coursework provides a foundation of knowledge on which to employ the applied skills. Furthermore, the most significant benefit of applied practica is the guidance given by an experienced supervising sport psychologist. Supervised practica provide students with the opportunity to observe and emulate a skilled practitioner and to receive feedback relative to their developing competence.

Supplemental Experience

Increase Knowledge Base. Though the knowledge developed from coursework and other components of the formal educational program provides a sound foundation of understanding, further learning is essential for continued professional growth. Young professionals should actively seek out new information to supplement their current knowledge. As a result, developing sport psychologists should subscribe to the most relevant journals, e.g., Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, The Sport Psychologist, and Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, and seek out the latest books and articles that will enable them to further enhance their knowledge and skills.

Conferences. Another important step in the process of career development and opportunities is the regular attendance at professional conferences such as those of the American Psychological Association (APA), especially Division 47, Exercise and Sport Psychology programs, Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP), and the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA), and other workshops and symposia.

There are a number of benefits to attending these professional meetings. First, frequenting conferences allows young professionals to learn from the leading researchers and practitioners in applied sport psychology. Second, they provide the opportunity to present research to other professionals, thereby allowing peer evaluation and feedback. Third, they permit in-depth discussion of shared interests that may lead to collaboration. Fourth, attending conferences shows to the leading sport psychologists a high level of motivation and commitment. Finally, attending conferences enables aspiring professionals to develop working relationships with established sport psychologists which may be beneficial in the future.

There are, of course, some significant obstacles to students and young professionals attending conferences and other professional gatherings. Foremost, conferences are expensive. In addition, they are time-consuming, often taking time away from school or work. However, it is believed that it is not only beneficial to surmount these barriers, but also a necessity for career growth. As a result, aspiring professionals should consider attending conferences as an investment in their careers and their futures.

Networking. Particularly in the early stages of a career, it is often difficult to find meaningful work opportunities. One way to partially circumvent this dilemma is through effective networking, which may lead to opportunities not previously available. However, it should be emphasized that there is no substitute for knowledge and skill.

Networking should begin early in a career and can be accomplished with letter writing and telephone calls to individuals who may benefit from the aspiring professional's knowledge and expertise. For the young sport psychologist, networking can be done through two avenues. Within sport psychology, it is useful to have the leading people in the field become familiar with them professionally and personally for the benefit of recommendations and referrals. As discussed above, attending conferences and collaborating on shared research interests provide excellent opportunities for this type of networking.

In addition, it is valuable for aspiring professionals to develop a network in a sport, exercise, or health setting in which they have an interest. Particularly in the latter case, prior athletic, exercise, or health experience may provide a natural extension of a previously-established network. Since many employment opportunities are due to referrals, networking can be an important component of career development.

Applied Experience. Once the basic skills of applied sport psychology have been acquired through coursework and supervised practica, it is necessary to further develop them. As with public speaking, a useful way to accomplish this goal is for young professionals to volunteer their services to local athletes and organizations.

In addition, though difficult to find, formal internships or other supervised training opportunities with an experienced sport psychologist can be an excellent means of gaining applied experience. One such opportunity that is presently available is research assistantships at the United States Olympic Training Center (USOTC) in Colorado Springs, Colorado. These positions last six to twelve months and provide the assistants with training in applied research and intervention under the supervision of the USOC resident sport psychologist at the USOTC. Interested students and professionals may write: Department of Sport Psychology, USOC, 1750 East Boulder, Colorado Springs, Colorado, 80909.

Sport, Exercise, or Health Involvement

Another useful component of developing a career in applied sport psychology is direct experience in sport, exercise, or health. For example, it is considered by some individuals in the field that it is advantageous for aspiring sport psychologists interested in performance enhancement to have elite-level athletic or coaching experience. However, this background is rare and, fortunately, appears to not be a necessity. In fact, the research conducted by Orlick and Partington (1987) and Partington and Orlick (1987) indicates that the most valued characteristics of sport psychologists include "being a good listener, being flexible and open...and having useful and relevant skills" (Partington & Orlick, 1987, p. 97).

Most sport psychologists would agree, however, that a strong understanding of sport, exercise, or health is valuable for effective professional intervention. This background can be best gained through direct participation in the sport or activity. In addition, experience can also be gained through apprenticeships and self-study.

There are a number of reasons why this understanding will improve the quality of service. First, this understanding will enhance the professional credibility of the sport psychologist. Second, it will increase the professional's empathy and sense of "what it is like" for the athletes or exercisers. Third, this knowledge will increase his or her ability to communicate with them in their own "language". Fourth, it will allow the sport psychologist to better appreciate the issues and problems faced by athletes or exercisers. Fifth, it will enable him or her to choose the most appropriate interventions. Finally, the sport psychologist will be more able to apply the techniques to the particular needs of the individuals and the demands of the sport or activity. In sum, developing this knowledge base will enhance the applied skills of the sport psychologist and make him or her more appealing to the sport, exercise, and health communities.

The level of involvement in a sport, exercise, or health setting that is necessary for providing quality service is a matter of debate. For example, is simply observing a team for part of a season sufficient or is having competed at the scholastic or collegiate level necessary? Clearly, it is difficult to specify what level is appropriate to provide adequate knowledge. Furthermore, the research conducted by Orlick and Partington offered no information relative to this issue. It may be that the best response to this question is that sufficient knowledge must be acquired to fulfill the six reasons for involvement listed above.

As a result, it is recommended that, if individuals have little athletic, exercise, or health experience, particularly in their area of interest, they should actively seek out knowledge about the sport through competition, coaching, apprenticeship, or self-study. Moreover, with respect to career opportunities, it would be advantageous to choose sport, exercise, or health settings that have had little exposure to sport psychology, thereby providing more opportunities for the sport psychologist to make a significant contribution.

Conclusion

With the growth of applied sport psychology during the past decade, the future appears bright for the field. At present, however, there are still questions about the most appropriate type of training that should be obtained. Furthermore, opportunities are limited and there is considerable competition for the openings that are available. As a result, young professionals must vigorously develop themselves and seek out these opportunities.

The present paper has proposed a three-phase model of formal education, supplemental experience, and sport, exercise, or health involvement in applied sport psychology. In sum, it is suggested that the sport psychologists who develop successful careers in the future will be those individuals who: (1) receive a broad-based education specific to their career interests; (2) have strong research, speaking, and writing skills; (3) possess extensive applied experience; (4) actively develop a network within sport psychology and the sport, exercise, or health setting of interest to them; (5) have a sound understanding of the sport or activity within which they work; and (6) are creative, sensitive, flexible, independent, and highly motivated.

References

Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (1989). AAASP Certification Plan. Chapel Hill, NC: author.

Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (Winter, 1990). AAASP Newsletter, 5, 2. (a)

Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (1990). AAASP membership directory. Oxford, OH: author. (b)

Brown, J.M. (1982). Are sport psychologists really psychologist? Journal of Sport Psychology, 4, 13-18.

Dishman, R.K. (1983). Identity crises in North American sport Psychology: Academics in professional issues. Journal of Sport Psychology, 2, 123-134.

Heyman, S. (1984). The development of models for sport psychology: Examining the USOC guidelines. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 125-132.

Landers, D. M. (1983). Whatever happened to theory testing in sport psychology. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 135-151.

Mahoney, M.J. (Winter, 1987). Thoughts on academic preparation in sport psychology. AAASP Newsletter, 2, 6-7.

Martens, R. (1977). Sport Competition Anxiety Test. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.

Nideffer, R. M. (1976). Test of attentional and interpersonal style. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 394-404.

Nideffer, R., Feltz, D., & Salmela, J. (1982). A rebuttal to Danish and Hale: A committee report. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4, 3-6.

Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: An analysis of critical components as viewed by Canadian Olympic athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 4-17.

Pargman, D. (1988, September). Sport psychology training within a department of movement science and physical education. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, Nashua, NH.

Partington, J., & Orlick, T. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Olympic coaches' views. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 95-102.

Sachs, M.L., & Burke, K.L. (1989). Directory of graduate programs in applied sport psychology. Philadelphia, PA: AAASP.

Singer, R.N. (Winter, 1987). Thoughts on academic preparation in sport psychology. AAASP Newsletter, 2, 8-9.

Smith, R. (1988, September). Sport psychology training within a clinical psychology program. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, Nashua, NH.

United States Olympic Committee (1983). U.S. Olympic Committee establishes guidelines for sport psychological services. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 2-4.

Williams, J.M. (1988, September). Sport psychology graduate preparation model: Major in psychology and minor in sport psychology through an exercise and sport sciences department. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, Nashua, NH.

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COACHES ARE PEOPLE TOO: AN APPLIED MODEL OF

STRESS MANAGEMENT FOR SPORT COACHES

Jim Taylor

Abstract

This paper examines the growing concern over stress among sports coaches. In particular, it provides an applied model of stress management in coaching which explores some of the significant causes of stress and outlines a five-step stress management program designed to address the special needs and concerns of coaches. The model is based on an integration of previous theoretical and empirical research both within and outside of sports. The first step, perceptions of coaching, assists coaches in understanding their perceptions, beliefs, and motivations for coaching. The second step, identification of primary stressors, involves clarifying to coaches their most significant sources of stress. The third step, identification of symptomatology, allows for the specification of the manner in which the stress is manifested in the individual coaches. The fourth step, development of coping skills, provides a structure within which coaches may cope effectively with stressors. Finally, the fifth step, building support systems, describes how a broad-based social support system may contribute to the effective management of stress.

Coaches are People Too: An Applied Model

of Stress Management for Sports Coaches

It is a commonly held belief that coaches are, in general, overworked and underpaid. They are often under a great deal of pressure to succeed and their positions can be tenuous. These issues can contribute to a wide variety of personal problems on the part of coaches. Traditionally, considerable attention has been paid to difficulties that are experienced by athletes at all levels of sports. However, little consideration is given to similar problems that coaches must face. Many people simply do not realize that "coaches are people too".

It is important for the mental, emotional, and physical health of coaches that individuals within the athletic community appreciate that coaches have doubts, worries, fears, and other problems. Moreover, these issues can lead to more serious difficulties that will affect the coaches as individuals and in their involvement with their athletes. There is, fortunately, a growing awareness of the mental health of coaches among both the laypeople (Borges, 1989a; Borges, 1989b; Borges, 1989c; Borges, 1989d) and professionals (Caccese & Mayerberg, 1984; Capel, Sisley, & Desertrain, 1987; Dale & Weinberg, 1989; Smith, 1986). This concern has emerged due to the media scrutiny surrounding several highly visible professional coaches who left their positions as a result of burn-out and the inappropriate behavior of other well-known coaches (Klein, 1985; Looney, 1985; Wolff, 1989). However, despite the growing interest, there has been little work done in the development of a practical model of stress management for coaches.

The causes of stress and how it can be managed effectively has been well-researched over the last two decades (for reviews, see McLeroy, Green, Mullen, & Foshee, 1984; Meichenbaum & Jaremko, 1983; Murphy, 1984). From this literature, various models of stress management have emerged (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; McInerney, 1984; Smith & Ascough, 1985). In addition, recently, stress management has begun to be applied specifically to the sports setting. In particular, Smith (1980) adapted his cognitive-affective model to athletes.

However, to date, there has been no work done to adapt these models to the particular, and sometimes unique, needs of coaches. In order to address this issue, the present paper proposes an applied model of stress management for coaches that incorporates some of the general knowledge offered by previous theorists while, at the same time, taking into consideration the specific needs of coaches and the particular demands of the coaching profession. Moreover, the model will address both the causes of stress for coaches and how the stress may be managed effectively. The present conceptualization also adds to previous considerations by incorporating a number of issues into the model. First, it provides a more detailed delineation of the individual coaches' own perception and beliefs about their work environment. Second, it identifies the stressors that are specifically related to coaching. Third, the model furnishes a detailed discusssion of specific stress management techniques for each important level of intervention. Fourth, it indicates how these strategies may be applied to the particular needs and demands of coaches. Finally, the model includes a social support component to complement the individual coaches' intrapersonal efforts at managing stress. The goal of the present model is to allow coaches to reduce the stress they derive from their work effectively. This reduction of stress will enable them to build a sound foundation for maintaining motivation, enhancing satisfaction and enjoyment, and, in general, to improve the quality of their professional and personal lives.

This model was developed out of the author's work as a sport psychologist at many levels of coaching including scholastic, junior-elite, collegiate, world-class, and professional. The implementation of this program by the author has produced supportive, though anecdotal, evidence. As a consequence, the present model was formulated in order to provide a framework from which to further investigate stress management in coaching. Before the model is presented, however, it is first necessary to provide a sound theoretical and empirical foundation and justification for the development of such a model. As a result, a brief review of relevant research will be offered.

How Stressful is Coaching?

In order to justify the need for the development of an applied model of stress management for coaches, it is necessary to demonstrate that coaching is, indeed, stressful. At present, though, there is a dearth of empirical literature in this area. Moreover, the research that has been conducted has produced equivocal findings. For example, Kroll and Gendersheim (1982), in a study of male scholastic coaches, found that coaching was considered by the majority of the sample to be stressful. Furthermore, Malone and Rotella (1981) assert that if coaches are not able to effectively cope with stress, they will be susceptible to burnout.

However, not all of the research has been supportive of this relationship. In a study of Canadian collegiate coaches, Wilson and Bird (1984) indicated that coaches exhibited less stress than individuals in other occupations. They also found, though, that certain environmental factors, i.e., longer hours, full-time status, and losing seasons, were related to higher levels of stress. Caccesse and Mayerberg (1984) reported similar findings in their study of college coaches. They further indicate, however, that female coaches and those with less experience evidenced the most amount of stress. Based on this limited evidence, it appears that coaching may not, in general, be significantly stressful. However, there seem to be a number of personal and environmental factors that, when present, will cause coaching to be stressful.

Unfortunately, there has been no empirical exploration of stress among elite-amateur or professional coaches. However, as discussed previously, there is considerable anecdotal and clinical evidence to at least warrant concern and further investigation (Klein, 1985; Looney, 1985; Wolff, 1989). Moreover, there is a significant amount of research in other related areas, such as in education and industrial/organizational psychology, that provides further justification for additional study.

In particular, evidence of significant stress was reported in research examining public agency employees (Ganster, Mayes, Sime, & Tharp, 1982) and secondary school teachers (Payne & Furnham, 1987). Similar findings emerged in studies investigating women from dual-earner families (King, Winett, & Lovett, 1986), business professionals (Bruning & Frew, 1987), and hospital employees (Jones, Barge, Steffy, Fay, Kunz, & Wuebker, 1988). Considering the limited amount of research available on coaching stress, the similarities of these populations to coaches, and the heterogeneity of the groups that were studied, it seems reasonable to generalize these findings to the coaching population and use them as justification to further explore stress in coaching.

Primary Sources of Stress for Coaches

In order to develop a model of effective stress management for coaches, it is first necessary to identify the significant sources of stress that are experienced by coaches at different levels of competition. Unfortunately, as with other areas of coaching stress, there is little research available to draw firm conclusions.

Most of the literature to date has examined the importance of role conflict and role ambiguity on stressful reactions by coaches. Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964) delineate role conflict by describing three types (each of which is meaningful for coaches). First, interrole conflict involves a person possessing several roles that require inconsistent behaviors. For instance, coaches might want to have a low-key, democratic relationship with their athletes and, at the same time, must, periodically, discipline them harshly. Second, intrarole conflict indicates that a person has a role from which different people expect opposing behaviors. Little League coaches may find that parents of some of the team members want to emphasize fun and mastery while others want to win. Third, person-role conflict suggests that a role demands behaviors that are incongruent with the individual's beliefs, values, or skills. A collegiate coach, for example, might feel pressured by the athletic director to use recruiting techniques to sign a talented athlete that are against his beliefs.

Outside of sport, there is considerable evidence to indicate that this factor is a significant precursor to stress and decreased performance (Cherniss, 1980; Kahn, 1978). Role conflict was found to be especially influential with persons who had to deal with people both within and outside of their primary organization. This finding has clear implications for coaches who must interact with people within, i.e., athletic directors and management, and outside, i.e., fans and media, of their team or club. Kahn (1978) further states that the most typical kinds of role conflict involve having too tasks and tasks that are too demanding.

Both of these types of role conflict are relevant for coaches. Specifically, coaches may be required to fulfill the roles of physical trainer, technician, fund-raiser, accountant, parent, administrator, and recruiter. In addition, coaches may not possess the necessary skills to successfully perform these responsibilities.

Role ambiguity develops when the individual lacks the information needed to effectively fulfill a role (Kahn et al., 1964). Research supporting this notion outside of sport has demonstrated that 24% of the variance for perceived burnout could be accounted for by role ambiguity and role conflict (Schwab, 1981). In addition, Capel (1986) found that role ambiguity was related to stress-induced burnout among a sample of athletic trainers. Though there has been no empirical study of this relationship among coaches, it is easy to see that role ambiguity may play a significant role for them as well. Specifically, as suggested by Capel, Sisley, and Desertrain (1987), the absence of direction and support from upper-level management, lack of clarity of job requirements, and unclear evaluation procedures may all produce stress for coaches.

Though these two factors provide a useful general categorization of sources of stress, they lack the specificity for consideration in an applied model of stress management. As a consequence, it will be useful to examine the specific sources of stress that have been reported in the literature both within and outside of sports.

It has been argued that winning is an intrinsic part of the Western socialization process (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1979) and that it is a pervasive aspect of all of American society's regulative social institutions (Loy, 1978). From this perspective, Santomier (1983) suggests that this high status places an implicit pressure on coaches which, in turn, results in stress. Additionally, Ingham (1975) concludes that this "performance principle" may place excessive demands on individuals in the sport setting.

Outside of the sports domain, a study by Ganster et al. (1982), utilizing a sample of public agency employees, indicated that their most common sources of stress included heavy workloads, inadequate resources, and the frequency of crises. Similar results were reported by Rapoport & Rapoport (1976) and St. John-Parsons (1978). In addition, research has demonstrated that the absence of time to pursue positive activities may also produce stress (Kanner, Kafry, & Pines, 1978; King, Winett, & Lovett, 1986). All of these factors have clear implications for coaches.

Additional research examining secondary school teachers indicated that difficulties related to instructional and student management demands were considered to be the most stressful aspects of their work (Payne & Furnham, 1987). Other studies involving teachers reported that the most commonly mentioned stressors included difficult students, absence of teaching resources, inadequate administrative staff and low staff relations, overload of non-teaching responsibilities, and insufficient time to fulfill responsiblities (Gorrell, Bregman, McAllister, & Lipscomb, 1985; Harris, Halpin, & Halpin, 1985; Pratt, 1978; Shaw, Keiper, & Flaherty, 1985). Also, consistent with findings involving coaches, gender and experience were related to the amount of stress that was reported (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978; Payne & Furnham, 1987; Staats & Staats, 1982).

Based on the literature just discussed, it is possible to classify three major areas of stress for coaches: Personal, social, and organizational. Personal stressors refer to factors intrinsic to the individual that create stress. Examples of personal stressors include lack of experience (Caccesse & Mayerberg, 1984), an inability to meet personal needs (Kanner et al., 1978; King et al., 1986), self-doubts (Meichenbaum, 1975), maintaining physical health (Bruning & Frew, 1987), and inadequate coaching skills (Kahn, 1978).

Social stressors involve difficulties that arise due to interactions with others (Capel et al., 1987; Kahn et al., 1964). Moreover, social stressors may originate within and outside of the team or club. Within the team, stressors may come from the athletes or the coaching staff. Though there is no literature within sports examining the contributions that athletes make to stress in coaching, analogous research in education indicates that students are a significant source of stress for teachers (Gorrell et al., 1985). Based on this findings, it seems reasonable to conclude that, in a similar manner, athletes may be causes of stress for coaches. For example, difficulties associated with athletes may include handling conflict between athletes, managing athlete egos, dealing with individual athlete problems, and satisfying athlete needs.

Other research outside the sports domain also indicates that poor staff relations may increase stress (Berkeley Planned Associates, 1977; Ivancevich, Matteson, Freedman, & Phillips, 1990). Unfortunately, there has been no research examining this issue in the sports setting. However, it may be expected that similar difficulties would be evident among coaching staffs. For example, stress caused by the coaching staff may include coach conflict, ineffective distribution of responsibilities, and poor decision-making by the coaches.

Outside of the team, interactions with fans, media, and parents may be sources of stress for coaches. In addition, a lack of support from all areas of the coaches' social network may contribute to experienced stress (Pilisuk & Parks, 1986).

Organizational stressors involve difficulties originating from within the team's organizational superstructure (Capel et al., 1987). Examples of organizational stressors include long hours (Wilson & Bird, 1984), lack of organizational support (Ganster et al., 1982), overload of responsibilities (Capel et al., 1987), administrative difficulties (Harris et al., 1985; Pratt, 1978), budgetary and other financial problems, time pressures (Payne & Furnham, 1987), and team performance concerns (Wilson & Bird, 1984).

Applied Model of Stress Management for Coaches

Based on the above review, there appears to be sufficient evidence to indicate that coaches do, in fact, experience stress and that it may be detrimental to their personal and professional lives. In order to address this issue, the applied model of stress management for coaches was developed. The purpose of this conceptualization is to elucidate the relevant stages in the process of stress identification and its intervention. The model has five distinct stages that addresses each of the major aspects of the stress management plan: (1) perceptions of coaching; (2) identification of primary stressors; (3) identification of symptomatology; (4) development of coping skills; and (5) social support.

Perceptions of Coaching

A consistent finding that emerges from the stress literature is that the perceptions of events rather than the events themselves produce stressful reactions (R.S. Lazarus, 1975a, 1975b). As a result, the first step in developing a stress management program for coaches is to assist coaches in articulating their own perceptions, beliefs, and motivations for coaching. Recent research has demonstrated the utility of individuals examining their personal and work values in reducing stress (Bruning & Frew, 1987). This initial task provides both the coach and the sport psychologist with a sense of the fundamental perceptions that are held by coaches about their involvement in coaching. This information can be valuable in developing an understanding of what personal, social, and environmental issues influence them and how their perceptions mediate the relationship between these factors and their stressful reactions to them (R.S. Lazarus, 1975a).

This information may be obtained through queries addressing several relevant areas. First, coaches may be asked to identify the reasons why they are coaching. Responses to this question should include issues related to personal values, quality of life, and financial expectations. Second, coaches can then be asked to indicate what they believe are the benefits and detriments of coaching for them. The coaches' answers should be comprehensive in their appraisal of all of the positive and negative aspects of coaching. Third, coaches can indicate what they want out of coaching, i.e., what are their goals in their career. Once again, their responses should encompass all aspects of their coaching experience. This information will assist the sport psychologist in determining the perceptions related to the coaches' work that may cause maladaptive reactions to stressful events.

Once their values have been clarified, it is then useful for the coaches to set personal goals (Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981). The purpose of these goals is to offer direction and motivation in their professional development. Also, they will provide a tangible basis for feelings of achievement and satisfaction in their work which, it is suggested, will moderate the effects of stressors on the coaches. In addition, these goals will enhance coaches' sense of control over their work, thereby further reducing potential stressful reactions (Tache & Selye, 1985). Empirical evidence reported by Bruning and Frew (1987) indicates that establishing strategic and tactical goals is an effective component of a cognitively-based stress management program.

These goals can be classified into three general categories: attitudes and behavior, skill development, and athlete and team performance. Attitude and behavior goals involve setting objectives for the attitudes and behaviors that coaches wish to exhibit in their interactions with athletes, coaches, and others such as parents and officials. For example, specific goals of this type might include providing more positive feedback to athletes or controlling anger toward referees.

Skill development goals comprise standards for the acquisition of the skills that are necessary for effective coaching such as increased visual rather than verbal description of technique or an enhanced understanding of the biomechanics of the sport. In addition, these types of goals may be used to aid in the development of skills associated with other roles that the coach must fulfill, e.g., administrative, financial (Kahn, 1978).

Lastly, perhaps the most visible measure of a coaches' ability and success is the performance of the team and individual athletes on the team. As a result, goals involving athlete and team performance can be set as a means of maintaining motivation. These performance goals may include an outstanding player being named to a national team or a particular statistical performance levels such as points per game.

The illumination of this information may occur in several ways. It may be acquired through unstructured individual interviews between the sport psychologist and the coach. This setting would provide a comfortable, nonthreatening opportunity for coaches to express their feelings and concerns about their work. These data may also be obtained through the development of structured questionnaires that are completed by the coaches in individual or group contexts.

Identification of Primary Stressors

In order to successfully minimize the negative effects of stress on coaches, it is first necessary to identify the primary stressors (Beech, Burns, & Sheffield, 1984) that are faced by coaches. As discussed earlier, these stressors may be grouped into three broad categories: Personal, social, and organizational. In addition, they may be major life events (Holmes & Rahe, 1967) or chronic daily stressors (Monroe, 1983). These stressors will vary as a function of the individual coaches' personality and coping repertoire (French & Caplan, 1972; Kahn et al., 1964), their previous experiences in coaching (Caccesse & Mayerberg, 1984), environmental factors (Wilson & Bird, 1984), their level of social support (Sarason & Sarason, 1985), and the current type and level of coaching (Caccesse & Mayerberg, 1984; Capel et al., 1987; Wilson & Bird, 1984).

Additionally, within any particular sport setting, there is usually a common set of difficulties that coaches must address regularly. For example, these frequent problems may include, at the professional level, such issues as contract hold-outs and cutting veteran players. In contrast, at the high school level, significant stressors may consist of academic difficulties or parental issues. A detailed identification of these areas will aid the coaches and the sport psychologist in specifying the unique demands of the particular setting, thereby enabling them to develop a comprehensive stress management program designed to address their particular needs (Meichenbaum & Jaremko, 1983).

To assist the sport psychologist in identifying significant stressors, there are a variety of assessment tools that may be used in this process. For assessing major life events, inventories currently available include the Life Experiences Survey (Sarason, Johnson, & Siegel, 1978) and the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe, 1967), both of which have been adapted for athlete populations (Passer & Seese, 1983; Bramwell, Masuda, Wagner, & Holmes, 1975, respectively). In order to maximize their utility, these instruments could be further modified to account for the unique major life stressors of coaches.

For measuring daily stressors, other assessment tools are available. Both The Daily Hassles Scale (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981) and the Daily Analyses of Life Demands for Athletes (Rushall, 1987) have proven to be effective measures of chronic daily stressors. These scales could also be adapted to the particular needs of coaches. Finally, Smith (1980) suggests that self-monitoring can also be a valuable assessment strategy.

Identification of Stress Symptomatology

In addition to gaining an understanding of what events produce stress reactions in coaches, it is also important to identify the manner in which they exhibit these difficulties. Clarifying these processes will enhance the ability of sport psychologists to provide the appropriate interventions for the particular symptoms that are presented. The primary sources of stress discussed above may manifest themselves in a variety of ways. Specifically, Santomier (1983) indicates that stress may manifest itself in the form of cognitive, emotional/physiological, and behavioral difficulties.

Cognitive stress reactions include negative or depressive thinking and maladaptive attributions, (Davison & Valins, 1969; Meichenbaum, 1977). For example, coaches may lose confidence in their ability to lead their team or may internally attribute poor team performance. Instruments used to assess cognitive functioning include measures of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977; King et al., 1986) and the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1978).

Emotional/physiological stress responses may be comprised of, at the manifest level, anger, anxiety, depression, fatigue, or illness (Ganster et al., 1982) and, at physiological level, increased heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac problems (Bruning & Frew, 1987; Cooper & Marshall, 1976). Coaches who lose their temper more than normal, experience excessive anxiety, are unusually tired or ill, or have high blood pressure or heart difficulties would illustrate this type of difficulty. Anxiety may be measured with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, 1970). Emotional and physiological symptoms of depression may be assessed with Symptoms Check List-90 (Derogatis, 1977) and the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1978). Physiological measures of stress may be obtained for heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin response (Burke, 1980; Fowler, 1970; Gifford, 1975; Kelleher, 1974). In addition, Ganster et al. (1982) developed a somatic complaint scale that measures the frequency of complaints such as headaches, dizziness, nausea, sweating palms, and flushed face. Also, though less practical, levels of catecholamines, which have been found to be related to stress, may be assessed (Frankenhaeuser, 1977; Ganster et al., 1982).

Behavioral difficulties may be seen in terms of tardiness, isolation, lack of assertiveness, and reduced efficiency (Bruning & Frew, 1987; Meichenbaum, 1975). For instance, coaches may be late for meetings and practices or may become less productive than usual. Though there are no inventories available to assess behavioral manifestations of stress, it would not be difficult to develop a brief coaching-specific checklist of some of the behavioral problems described above.

In addition to these symptom-specific measures of stress, several general inventories have been developed to assess a variety of perceived stressors among workers. The Health Factors Inventory (Jones, 1983; Jones & Fay, 1987) includes subscales evaluating perceived levels of job stress, organizational stress, personal stress, and job dissatisfaction. Additionally, The Stress/Mood/Productivity Inventory (Frederiksen, Solomon, McClaren, & Bosmajian, 1979) consists of physical-symptom, mood-related, and productivity items. Also, the Stressful Conditions Questionnaire (Steinmetz, Kaplan, & Miller, 1982) assesses the frequency with which people experience a variety of cognitive, social, and occupational stressors.

Development of Coping Skills

The ability of coaches to address stressors in a positive, constructive manner may influence significantly their coaching performance and their own physical and mental health. As a result of this importance, the development of effective coping skills is essential; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Meichenbaum, 1977).

There is considerable empirical support for the value of stress management programs for reducing stress in a variety of settings. In particular, stress management programs have been successfully implemented with students (Decker, 1987; Romano, 1984), teachers (Dougherty & Deck, 1984), women from dual-earner families (King et al., 1986), and government workers (Savery, 1986). Additionally, research has also demonstrated its efficacy in the business world (Bruning & Frew, 1987; Ganster, Mayes, Sime, & Tharp, 1982).

Monat and Lazarus (1977) offer two types of coping strategies that may be employed for the relief of stress: Palliative and instrumental. According to these authors, the purpose of palliative coping skills is to temporarily alleviate the emotional impact of the stressors. Moreover, palliative coping does not directly influence the stressor itself, but rather relieves the symptoms temporarily. Examples of palliative coping include relaxation training, cognitive restructuring, and exercise. They further suggest that this type of coping better prepares individuals for the implementation of instrumental coping.

Instrumental coping involves skills aimed at addressing the stressors directly. In other words, the stressors themselves are changed, thereby relieving the stress reaction at its source. Instrumental coping skills include time management, assertiveness training, and delegation of responsibilities (Monat & Lazarus, 1977).

The sport psychologist can be active in both assessment and intervention in this stage. In order to determine the most effective intervention to use, accurate evaluation of coaches' coping resources would be valuable. Self-report inventories that are presently available are the Vulnerability to Stress subscale of the Stress Audit Questionnaire (Miller & Smith, 1982), the Coping Resources Inventory (Hammer & Marting, 1987), and the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1988). By identifying coaches' coping strengths and weaknesses, sport psychologists may then develop appropriate strategies for areas of need.

There are several approaches to developing stress management programs to deal with these bases of stress. First, these domains may be addressed by adapting comprehensive stress management programs such as those offered by Holtzworth-Munroe, Munroe, and Smith (1985), Kirschenbaum (1984), Meichenbaum (1977), or Smith and Rohsenow (1989) to the coaching setting. Such an approach has value because it provides an organized framework in which to alleviate stress. However, as with other prescriptive methods, a significant drawback is that it provides interventions that may not be necessary and does not consider the particular needs of the individual or the demands of the situation.

Another potentially more efficient approach that may be employed would be to assess the particular stressors that are present and the nature of the stress reaction, then select specific techniques to remediate these areas. Furthermore, as suggested by Smith (1980), both individual and situational factors may influence the effectiveness of the stress management techniques. As a consequence, this approach enables the sport psychologist to design a stress management program that considers the particular needs of the individual and the specific demands of the situation. Specifically, this process makes it possible to match appropriate strategies to the particular stressor and type of reaction.

For cognitive stressors, at a fundamental level, coaches must change their perceptions of the events that occur in their work (Bandura, 1977; R.S. Lazarus, 1975b). In particular, coaches may use cognitive restructuring (A. Lazarus, 1972) and mental imagery (Smith, 1980) to re-orient their thinking in a more positive direction, self-instructional training (Meichenbaum, 1977) to improve attention and problem-solving, or goal-setting (Bruning & Frew, 1987). These techniques have been used successfully to reduce stress in a variety of populations and activities (Labouvie-Vief & Gonda, 1976; Meichenbaum & Cameron, 1973; Moleski & Tosi, 1976; Trexler & Karst, 1972).

Similarly, relevant techniques could be used for emotional/physiological stressors. Specifically, coaches could employ anger and anxiety exercises such as time-out (Browning, 1983), relaxation training (Bruning & Frew, 1987; Delman & Johnson, 1976; May, House, & Kovacs, 1982), and health (Savery, 1986), exercise (Bruning & Frew, 1987), and nutritional counseling (Stevens & Pfost, 1984) to alleviate these difficulties.

Finally, a regimen of behavior modification could deal with overt manifestations of stress. Techniques such as assertiveness training (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976), time management training (Bruning & Frew, 1987; King et al., 1986), and skills assessment and development (Bruning & Frew, 1987; Taylor, 1987a) could be effective in overcoming behavioral difficulties caused by stress. Furthermore, through active management of the team environment, e.g., team selection, practice group selection, and room assignments, coaches can create a setting that prevents many problems from arising (Kirschenbaum, 1984; Meichenbaum & Jaremko, 1983; Taylor, 1987b).

A useful strategy for both identifying common stressors and selecting the appropriate stress management techniques is the use of group brainstorming with the coaching staff (Osborn, 1957). This method has been found to be useful in producing new and innovative ideas for solving problems (Jablin, 1981; Schultz, 1989). In addition, brainstorming has been used effectively in a sport setting (Richman et al., 1989). As a consequence, this strategy allows coaches to determine the most salient stressors, share techniques they already use to combat stress, and generate new and more effective means of dealing with common problems. Sport psychologists may facilitate this process by teaching brainstorming skills to coaches and assisting them in its implementation (Jablin, 1981).

Social Support

A significant issue that is often considered in the stress management literature is the role that social support plays in the amelioration of stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Sarason & Sarason, 1986; Smith, 1985). Considerable research indicates that people who receive emotional or material support from others are healthier than those who receive little support (Broadhead et al., 1983; Caplan, 1974; Sarason & Sarason, 1985).

At present, there are two explanations for how social support ameliorates stress. First, the buffering hypothesis suggests that social support may act as a buffer against stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985). In particular, support helps in decreasing the effects of the stressful event on the individual, possibly by moderating the perceived meaning of the stressor. This approach posits that social support is primarily related to health for individuals under stress. Second, the main-effect view argues that social support is beneficial independent of whether persons are under stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Specifically, it is postulated that social support provides positive affect, the perception of stability and predictability in life, and a sense of self-worth (Depner, Wethington, & Korshavn, 1982; Norbeck, 1985). Though considering these differing perspectives is beyond the scope of the present work, it is possible to see how each could be meaningful within the context of coaching.

The professional literature offers many recommendations for the use of social support to reduce stress. For example, supervisors should provide empathy and feedback to employees when they are under stress (Villeco, 1977). Also, workers should meet together to discuss difficulties, either informally (Freudenberger, 1977) or in organized gatherings (Shannon & Saleeby, 1980).

There is, unfortunately, little empirical study of the effects of social support intervention in reducing the amount of stress experienced by individuals. One promising study by Sarason & Sarason (1986) demonstrated that experimentally enhanced social support increased performance and decreased cognitive interference on an intellectual task. Lindner, Sarason, and Sarason (1988) reported similar findings using a social problem-solving task. Additionally, in a medical field setting, results of a series of workshops aimed at increasing social support among physicians and nurses indicated marked improvement on a variety of psychological, social, and performance indices. However, the authors caution that the evaluations did not undergo rigorous statistical analysis (Bair & Greenspan, 1986). Finally, Richman, Hardy, Rosenfeld, and Callahan (1989), using a brainstorming activity with a group of sport psychologists to generate ways of enhancing social support for athletes, produced a lengthy list of recommended interventions that could easily be adapted for coaches.

In addition, research has indicated that social support may be characterized as either instrumental or expressive in nature. Instrumental support refers to material and physical assistance in addition to information and guidance. Expressive support indicates emotional sustenance and the sharing of feelings (Pilisuk & Parks, 1986).

Pines, Aronson, and Kafry (1981) further break down these categories into six types of social support: (1) listening: people who listen without judgment and who can share in the successes and failures; (2) emotional support: those who provide emotional support during stressful times; (3) emotional challenge: individuals who challenge the person to surmount hurdles and accomplish goals; (4) shared social reality: those with similar beliefs, values, and goals who can provide reality-testing of the situation; (5) technical appreciation: individuals who recognize the quality of performance; and (6) technical challenge: others who can challenge the person to strive higher and perform better. It is further argued that it is important to match the appropriate type of social support to that which is most needed (Cobb, 1976).

Assessment of social support is the first important step in this stage of the model. The Social Support Questionnaire (Sarason, Levine, Basham, & Sarason, 1983) has been demonstrated to be an effective measure of the number of people that are available to a person and how satisfied they are with the social support. Additionally, Pines et al. (1981) developed the Social Support Functions Questionnaire which assesses the six types of social support describe above. Subsequently, Rosenfeld, Richman, and Hardy (1989) adapted this scale to athletes in order to measure who furnishes social support, which of the six types of social support is offered, and how the recipient perceives the support that is provided. As with coping resources, understanding the exact nature of coaches' social support systems will enable the sport psychologist to assist coaches in enhancing the less developed parts of those systems.

Specific sources of social support for coaches may be considered in light of the issues just discussed. Specifically, coaches' primary sources of social support are: Upper-level management (instrumental; technical appreciation, technical challenge), coaching staff (instrumental and expressive; technical appreciation, technical challenge, shared reality, emotional support), the sport psychologist (instrumental and expressive; listening, emotional support), and family and friends (expressive; listening, emotional support, emotional challenge, shared reality). As a result, with the development of a broad-based social support system, coaches may enhance these sources of support, thereby further reducing the effects of stress (Bair & Greenspan, 1986; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Sarason & Sarason, 1986).

One group of individuals that play a significant role in coaches' social environment that has not been discussed relative to social support is the athletes. As discussed previously, there is evidence to indicate that athletes may be a significant source of stress for coaches. However, there is no support within or outside the sports domain to suggest that they serve as a meaningful source of social support. For example, in the education field, there is no research to demonstrate that students offer social support to teachers. Similarly, nothing has emerged with respect to subordinate support of their supervisors in the business setting.

Though, at an intuitive and practical level, it seems likely that athletes do offer some social support to coaches, it is unclear as to the nature of that support or the situations in which is given. Furthermore, it is difficult to show which of the six types of social support posited by Pines et al. (1981) athletes would provide to coaches. It appears that these kinds of support may best be supplied by individuals of equal or greater status. Due to the absence of theoretical and empirical evidence demonstrating the contributions of athletes to the social support network of coaches, it is difficult to justify inclusion of athletes into this aspect of model.

Upper-level management. A significant source of stress and frustration for coaches is the lack of support they receive from upper-level management of a sports organization, i.e., financial, logistical, and administrative (Capel et al., 1987; Ganster et al., 1982; Harris et al., 1985). The inability to accomplish necessary tasks that are outside of the immediate responsibilities of the coach is detrimental to coaches on both a psychological and practical level. In other words, these dificulties will cause stress and limit their ability to fulfill their primary obligations. As a result, the sport psychologist can actively assist sports organizations to develop open lines of communication between coaches and upper-level staff. For example, the sport psychologist can meet with the coaches and management prior to the competitive season to discuss probable difficulties on which the coaches will need assistance from the management. A degree of commitment on these concerns can be solicited from the management, thereby making their cooperation when they arise more likely. This support allows coaches to accomplish their primary responsibilities unencumbered and to receive the necessary help when the need is present.

Coaching staff. A second critical area of both support must come from within the coaching staff itself (Harris et al., 1985; Pratt, 1978). A cohesive, mutually-supportive staff will be more efficient and will be able to address a greater variety of issues more effectively (Bair & Greenspan, 1986). A meaningful issue relative to this concern is in the selection of the staff. Consideration should be given not only to the individual abilities of the coaches, but also to how their strengths and weaknesses complement and support each other. For example, a well-balanced staff does not have to be composed of individuals possessing every necessary coaching skill. Rather, a carefully selected staff will be comprised of coaches who, in aggregate, possess all of the requisite skills necessary to fulfill their responsibilities. In addition, another critical component of a cohesive staff is the correct mixture of personalities to provide instrumental and expressive support. Though difficult to quantify, the development of this blend would involve identifying all of the areas of support required by coaches, assessing which coaching candidates could provide what types of support, and selecting a staff that fulfills each of those needs.

In addition, a useful method for building and maintaining support within a coaching staff is to schedule regular coaches' meetings with the express purpose of instrumental problem-solving, expressive support, and developing preventive and coping strategies (Richman et al., 1989; Shannon & Saleeby, 1980). This approach provides the opportunity for coaches to get to know each other on a personal level and will foster greater personal investment in the staff, thus enhancing motivation to provide support.

Sport psychologist. Despite efforts to maintain a supportive environment, conflicts may occur within the coaching staff, particularly during periods of high stress. In addition, other difficulties related to stressors both within and outside of the team may arise. In these situations, the role of sport psychologists in providing support can be significant. Sport psychologists may offer useful preventive and coping techniques to assist the coaches in adapting to difficult situations. In addition, they may provide unbiased, objective mediation of conflicts within or outside the team. Also, sport psychologists may allow coaches to communicate feelings in a safe and supportive setting that they would not feel comfortable discussing with other coaches.

Family and friends. Research outside of sports has demonstrated that social support from family and friends is significantly related to lower levels of stress and burnout (Davis-Sacks et al., 1985; Leavy, 1983; Mitchell, Billings, & Moos, 1982). Based on these findings, it seems reasonable to assume that family and friends are also a significant source of expressive support for coaches. Particularly for coaches who are required to travel extensively, time away from home can be lonely and stressful. In order to minimize these difficulties, teams can incorporate a program by which coaches have ready access to support from family and friends. For example, a team's budget may include funds for telephone calls to spouses and the provision for a spouse to accompany the team on one trip per year.

Conclusion

As described above, sport psychologists may play an active role in all phases of the development of stress management programs for coaches. Moreover, their expertise may ensure that the critical stressors are identified and the appropriate intervention strategies are implemented. However, to date, there is little systematic knowledge within the sports setting upon which to base the utilization of these strategies.

Despite its apparent importance, there has been relatively little theoretical or empirical investigation of the effects of stress on coaching and even less on the value of stress management techniques on coaches' responses to stress. However, this position may be changing. Due to the recent media attention given to coaches who have experienced difficulties, more researchers are beginning consider the effects of stress on coaches.

The purpose of developing the present model has been to initiate greater interest in this issue. Though there is considerable theoretical and empirical support for the foundation of the present conceptualization, there is now a need to investigate the particulars of the model. Such an exploration would involve empirical study of each stage of the model and its role in the alleviation of stress. It is hoped that this model will act as impetus for researchers to further study the importance of stress on coaches.

Case Studies

Case Study #1: U.S. National Team Coach

Early in the competitive season, one coach, Steve (not his real name), was planning on leaving the team to join a junior-development program the following year. Though Steve indicated that he enjoyed many aspects of his job, he felt burned out from the constant hassles of travel and the pressures of international coaching. In past years, he was physically exhausted half-way through the season and had difficulty staying motivated. At Steve's suggestion, the team psychologist formulated an assessment and intervention program to assist him in managing his stress.

In the assessment stage, the psychologist observed Steve during training and competition. It was his impression that he functioned very well; expressing his emotions appropriately, handling ambiguity effectively, and communicating well with the athletes and others. Steve's only noticeable source of frustration came in his interactions with the head coach and the team office. He expressed that he often could not get assistance for things that needed to get done, but which were outside his area of responsibilities. In addition, the psychologist saw that in the evenings, Steve tended to sit by himself and write letters to his wife and children.

The results of a coping skills instrument and a measure of social support that Steve completed indicated that he had sound coping resources. However, he perceived himself as being very undersupported, particularly in two areas. As expected, Steve felt undersupported from the upper-level management. In addition, he often felt lonely and isolated from his family. Based on this evaluation, the psychologist developed a program to enhance the relevant areas of social support. The head coach was supportive of this plan because Steve was well-liked and the head coach wanted him to stay with the national team.

First, the psychologist and Steve discussed with the head coach and the program director specific and tangible ways to facilitate the logistical assistance that he requested during the season. A reasonable timetable was created for the fulfillment of Steve's requests and these issues were written up and distributed to all involved parties. This strategy met Steve's instrumental needs.

Second, in order to reduce Steve's feelings of loneliness and isolation, the team arranged to have his wife travel to three competitions during the season. In addition, they agreed to cover the cost of additional telephone calls to his family. Thus, Steve's emotional needs were satisfied.

This intervention program proved to be successful. In contrast to previous seasons, Steve's physical energy level remained high and he stayed healthy throughout the season. His attitude also improved and the athletes perceived him as being more positive and supportive. Post-season assessment of coping skills and social support indicated improvement in both areas. Finally, based on the success of the team and his increased level of enjoyment in his work, Steve decided to remain with the team the following year.

Case Study #2: Junior-Development Coach

As a junior-development coach in a large program, Dan (not his real name), was having difficulties in his interactions with parents of the athletes with whom he worked. The parents were sometimes critical of his work with their children and demanding of his time, often when he was busy coaching. This disruption was frustrating for Dan and, as a result, he would become angry with the parents who, in turn, would complain to the head coach. Further investigation by the head coach indicated that this problem was quite common.

This situation caused significant concern for the head coach and the team as a whole. A sport psychologist who worked with the team was brought in to assist in the resolution of the problem. After obtaining feedback from Dan, the head coach, and some of the parents, a multi-level intervention program was implemented.

At an organizational level, the head coach called a meeting with parents in which an open dialogue was established to identify the needs of the parents and clarify the needs of the coaches. From this discussion, an agreement was reached on the appropriate manner, time, and place for parents to speak with the coaches.

At a staff level, brainstorming sessions were organized to identify typical parental concerns and behavior and to discuss effective responses to a variety of parents. In addition, role playing was used to allow coaches to practice appropriate interactions with parents.

Additional individual sessions were arranged with Dan with two goals in mind. One, to assist in his understanding of the causes of his anger and, two, to further develop coping skills and effective responses to the parents.

The intervention had a positive effect at several levels. First, Dan reported feeling more relaxed and in control when dealing with parents. He also felt less pressured and criticized. Second, the coaching staff as a whole indicated greater cooperation and support from the parents. Finally, the parents related that the coaches were more responsive to their concerns and were getting more feed

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